The Bantu-Japanese Connection: Iconicity of Reduplication in Japanese and Kinyarwanda

Alexandre Kimenyi
California State University at Sacramento

The analysis of Japanese and Kinyarwanda reduplication shows many similarities in the two languages at both the formal and functional levels.It seems to be very productive in both languages especially with stem reduplication of words which consist of two syllables.
Although reduplication seems to denote different types of meanings, when looked at very closed, they are shown to be metonymically related because an association or "factual contiguity" exists among them. These concepts referred to by reduplication in Japanese and Kinyarwanda are also expressed in other languages such as English by the same process or by sound symbolism. These findings thus support Peirce's classification of signs and structures into three types namely icons,indices and symbols and his thesis that these signs and structures start as icons and become symbols later on.

By going through both the Japanese and Kinyarwanda dictionaries one is struck by the discovery of a large number of reduplicated forms that these two languages have. All types of words- - verbs, nouns, adjectives, numerals, adverbs, pronouns, prepositions--- can occur in the reduplicated form. Alongside this lexical reduplication, there is also a very productive grammatical reduplication in the two languages. The majority of reduplicated words happen also to be bisyllabic. As examples which follow show, reduplication is used to refer to concepts expressed in other languages by the same process namely repetition, iterativity, continuity, intensification, amelioration, pejoration, completeness, exaggerated size, plurality, enumeration, and variety. All these different connotations happen to be metonymically related(Kimenyi, 1988) because an association or "factual contiguity" exists among them. Japanese and Kinyarwanda are thus very iconic in this respect because of the isomorphism between form and function, signifier and signified or to use Peirce's terminology the signans and the signatum.
The first part of this paper discusses reduplication in Japanese: both its formal and functional properties. The second part describes reduplication in Kinyarwanda. The concluding remarks deal with the implications of these semantic and grammatical similarities of reduplication in these two languages which are not genetically and typologically related.

I. Reduplication in Japanese

1.a. Formal properties of reduplication in Japanese.

The majority of reduplicated forms, as said in the introduction, are bisyllabic. It just thus happens that maybe the majority of world's languages favor a bisyllabic foot melodic template as suggested in Mutaka and Hyman (1990) and Kimenyi (1994). Examples are shown in (1).

(1).
buyobuyo 'soft/yielding'
dekadeka 'play (a thing) up in headlines'
girigiri 'to barely menage to be on time'
gobugobu 'get even with'
gotagota 'domestic trouble'
gushagusha 'soggy (cigar)'
hirihiri 'taste hot'
hirohiro 'open field'
hisohiso 'secretly/whispering'
hitahita 'lapping waves'
hokuhoku be pleased of (oneself)'
hoyahoya 'hot/steaming (hot)/fresh'
ikiiki 'lively/fresh'
inaiinaibâ 'play peekaboo'
kasukasu 'pass an examination/shave through'
kibikibi 'quick/brisk'
kirikiri 'have griping pains'
kosokoso 'stealthily/secretly/furtively'
kushakusha 'to crumple (paper)/rumple (muss)'
mazamaza 'vividly/clearly/distinctly'
meramera 'burst into flames/flare up'
mizumizushii 'young and fresh/fresh looking'
mokumoku 'silently/mutely/in silence'
morimori 'well developed muscles'
motamota 'be slow/tardy'
motomoto 'from the beginning'
mukamuka 'feel sick (at the stomach)/feel nausea'
muramura 'to suddenly feel a desire to do something'
mushimushi 'be sultry/stuffy/close'
naganaga 'very long'
nakanaka 'very quiet'
narenareshii 'familiar'
nayonayo 'slender/delicate'
nobinobi 'feel relieved'
nuranura/nurunuru 'slippery'
omoiomoini 'each in his own way'
pekopeko 'cringe to'
petapeta 'plaster (on wall)'
pichipichi '(young and) lively'
poroporo 'fast'
rakuraku 'feel relieved'
sabasaba 'feel refreshed'
sakusaku 'eat crisp/dry/not juicy'
sekaseka 'be fidgety'
shikushiku 'sob/snivel'
somosomo 'well/now/to begin with'
soyosoyo 'gently/softly'
subesube 'smooth'
sugasugashii 'fresh/cool'
sugosugo 'dejectedly'
sukusuku 'grow up steadily'
supasupa 'puff at cigarette/pipe'
surasura 'smoothly/fluently'
suresure 'just in time'
surusuru 'smoothly/easily'
suyasuya 'sleep peacefully/calmly'
tabitabi 'often'
tamatama 'accidently'
teruterubôzu 'make a paper doll (as charm) to bring fine weather'
tokutoku 'proudly/triumphantly'
tsukitsukeru 'thrust (a thing before a person)'
wazawaza 'on purpose'
yamayama 'be anxious/eager to do something'
yasuyasu 'easily'
yokuyoku 'next day/year'
yoriyori 'meet and discuss something'
yosoyososhii 'cold/indifferent'
yukuyuku 'in the future'
yumeyume 'never'
zokuzoku 'chill'
zokuzoku 'one after another'
zukazuka 'straight/directly'
zukizuki 'throb with pain'

When monosyllabic words are reduplicalted, there is no stem prefixation or suffixation like the Kinande discussed by Mukata and Hyman's (1990) but stem vowel lengthening instead like in Kinyarwanda as seen in (2).

(2).
chûchû 'twitter/squeak'
gâgâ 'squawk'
gîgî 'creak/screech/squeal'
gyâgyâ 'bawl/squawk'
hôhô 'way/method'
hyôhyô 'wandering/roaming'
jôjô 'grand/splendid/first class'
kyâkyâ 'cackle'
kyûkyû 'creak/squeak'
mômô 'clouds of dust'
pîpî 'whistle'
shâshâ 'cool/shameless/brazenfaced'

The alveolar nasal [n] in the final position is also syllabic and thus considered as a coda of the rhyme as examples in (3) indicate.

(3).
beronberon 'get (dead) drunk'
konkon 'gash out'
bonbon 'bong!bong!'
bunbun 'buzz(ing)/hum(ming)'
chirinchirin 'tinkle-tinkle/ting-a-ling'
dondon 'bang! bang!'
dandan 'gradually/little by little'
garangaran 'clang/clangor(rumble) of a bell'
gudenguden 'be very drunk'
gungun 'rapidly/steadily/make steady progress'
hanhan 'half-and-half/in half/evenly'
kankan 'hot/steam'
kinkin 'high strident voice'
kyankyan 'yelp/yap'
junjun 'talk earnestly'
pinpin 'much alive'
panpan 'smack!smack!'
ponpon 'bang!bang!'
punpun 'bad smell'
pyonpyon 'hop/skip'
rinrin 'ring/jingle'
sensen 'declaration of war'
tonton 'tap, tap'
tsuntsun 'be cross/touchy'
zenzen 'all/entirely/completely'
zunzun 'quickly/rapidly'

As examples in (4) illustrate, a case of double reduplication is also found in Japanese in which words with two independent stems have both of them reduplicated.

(4).
chanchanbarabara 'the couple had a quarrel, going at it hammer and tongs'
heiheibonbon 'commonplaces/mediocre/commonplace/banal'
kenkengôgô 'noisy/clamorous/uproarious'
seiseidôdô 'play fair and square'
sensenkyôkyô ' with fear and trembling'
shishisonson 'posterity/offspring/descendants'

Doublets, words with almost both phonetic and semantic similarities, due to either initial or final consonant palatalization are also found in Japanese reduplicated words.

(5).
bûbû/byûbyû 'honk/hoot'/whistling of the wind'
bunbun/byunbyun 'hum/buzz'
horohorochô/hyorohyoro 'guinea fowl hen/staggeringly; totteringly'
noronoro/nyoronyoro 'sluggishly; slowly/wriggle out along'
gorogoro/gyorogyoro 'rumble'/look around with glaring eyes'
korokoro/kyorokyoro 'roll over'/stare about; look around (restlessly)'
kotogoto(ni)/kyotokyoto 'in every thing/look around restlessly (be restless/nervous)'

Rendaku Rule, the voicing of the consonant of the first syllable found in Japanese compounds (p-->b, t-->d, s--->z, k-->g, ...), takes place also in reduplication as seen in the examples provided below.

(6).
harubaru 'all the way'
hitobito 'people'
hôbô 'everywhere/in all directions'
karugaru 'easily/without any effort'
katagata 'partly... and partly'
kawarugawaru 'alternatively/by turn'
kiregire 'broken/fragmentary'
komagoma 'in detail/minutely'
kotogotoni 'in every thing/in every attempt/at every turn'
kotogokoku 'all/altogether/entirely/wholly/without any exception'
kuroguro 'very dark'
kuniguni 'countries'
samazama 'various/diverse/divergent'
sanzan 'have a hard time'
tokidoki 'sometimes/occasionally/now and then/off and on/once in a while'
tokorodokoro 'here and there/at several places'
toridori 'each/severally/variously'

Voice alternation (voiced vs voiceless) of stem initial consonants is used to mark contrast in which case "the impression is expressed more strongly if the consonant is voiced" (Alfonzo, 1970) :

(7).
para-para <--> bara-bara 'in disorder'
pera-pera <--> bera-bera 'fluently'
kira-kira <--> gira-gira 'glitteringly'
potsu-potsu <--> botsu-botsu 'little by little'

There are also cases of consonant reduplication as well as shown in (8) and these consonants which undergo reduplication happen to be intervocalic.

(8).
bikkuri 'surprise, astonishment'
hakkiri 'clearly, distinctly, exactly'
ippai 'full'
ippan 'general, common'
ippanni 'generally, commonly'
ittai 'generally, in fact'
kekkoo 'excellent, fine'
kitto 'surely'
makkara 'deep red'
makkura 'completely dark'
makkuro 'completely black'
massao 'completely blue'
masshiro 'completely white'
massugu (na) 'straight'
mattaku 'quite, entirely'
minna 'everybody, everything, all'
mottomo 'the most'
sappari 'frank, refleshed, relieved completely'
sassoku 'at once, immediately, right away'
sekkaru 'expressly, specially, with much trouble'
shikkari 'firmly'
sokkuri 'all together, entirely'
sotto 'softly'
sukkari 'entirely, completely'
ukkari 'carelessly, inadvertently'
yatto 'at last, finally, just, narrowly, only'
yukkuri 'slowly'
zettai 'absoluteness, absolutely'
zatto 'roughly, approximately'

Like in Kinyarwanda in which the same word can have both either the initial syllable reduplication or the stem reduplication, Japanese also sometimes allows certain words to have both consonant and stem reduplication with a slight semantic difference:

(9).
battari 'with a bang' -- bata-bata 'with a thud'
hissori 'quietly' -- hiso-hiso 'secretly'
kossori 'stealthly' -- koso-koso 'sneakingly'
nikkori 'smiling' -- niko-niko 'smiling'

After having examined some of the formal properties of reduplication in Japanese, the next section will look at its function

1.2. The semantics of reduplication.

As was pointed out earlier, reduplication in Japanese is iconic since it is used to refer to repeated events. A one-to-one relationship is found between the linguistic sign and its referrent. Lexical items which refer to movements and sounds are the most productive. It is thus mostly verbs, adverbs and adjectives which appear in the redupicated form more than nouns because being the ones which function as predicates can show change, continuation or repetition of event, action or state.

1.2.1.Movement.

In this section we find words which refer to repeated movements or clumsy behaviors:

(10)
burabura 'swing (in the wind)'
chokochoko 'walk with short steps'
chorochoro 'trickle'
guragura 'totter'
hatahata 'flatter in the wind'
gorogoro 'rumble'
guruguru 'round and round/(run) in circles'
hikuhiku 'move convulsively/uncontrollably'
hyorohyoro 'staggering/totteringly'
korokoro 'roll over and over'
kurukuru 'go or turn around and around'
magomago 'hang/wander about (around)'
noronoro 'sluggishly/slowly'
nosonoso 'slowly/lazily'
nyoronyoro 'wriggle out (along)'
pikupiku 'twitch'
patapata 'flitter/flatter'
osoruosoru 'go near timidly (nervously)'
shakishaki 'crisp/briskly'
shanarishanari 'walk with a mincing'
tajitaji 'stagger'
tsurutsuru 'slippery'
uneune 'winding/meandering/zigzaging'
wanawana 'quiver/tremble'
zuruzuru 'slip down/drag along'
yoroyoro 'totteringly'
yotayota 'totteringly'
tekuteku 'walk'
sutasuta 'quickly/briskly/in a hurry'
yochiyochi 'toddle along'

1.2.2.Sound

Reduplication is found with hundreds of words denoting repetitive sounds of humans, animals, man-made objects such as engines and natural phenomena such as wind, rain, waves, etc.

(11)
bachabacha 'splash/sloch'
baribari 'rattle'
batabata 'flap (in the wind)'
bechabecha 'chatter/prattle'
bokoboko 'make a hollow sound'
boribori 'crunch/munch'
bosoboso 'talk in a subdued voice'
botabota 'drip/trickle'
butsubutsu 'simmer'
daradara 'fall in drops/drip'
dokidoki 'beating/pounding'
garagara 'rattle/clatter'
gasagasa 'rustle'
gatagata 'rattle/clatter/wobble'
gachagacha 'clatter/rattle'
gakugaku 'knees knocking together'
geragera 'roar with laughter'
gishigishi 'creak'
gobogobo 'water gurgled out'
gosogoso 'rustle'
karikari 'crunch'
kasakasa 'rustle'
jabujabu 'splash/splatter'
katakata 'clatter/rattle'
merimeri 'with a crack'
pachapacha 'splash (water)/paddle'
mogumogu 'mumble'
mosomoso 'muffle/mumble'
munyamunya 'mumble'
mushamusha 'chomp, chomp'
pachipachi 'crackle'
pakapaka 'clop-clop'
pakupaku 'munch'
parapara 'sprinkle (fall in large drops)'
pichapicha 'produce noises (waves)'
sarasara 'murmur'
zukezuke 'speak bluntly'

1.2.3.Iterativity of actions or events

Verbs and adverbs which refer to actions or events which can be repeated are found in this category. Reduplication is thus either lexical (item found in the dictionary or grammatical
(regular verb which can occur either in the simple form or reduplicated form).

(12)
baibai 'buying and selling'
biribiri 'tear up/tear into pieces'
akaaka 'glow/glisten'
chakuchaku 'steadily'
chibi(ri)chibi(ri) 'little by little'
chikuchiku 'prickle/tingle'
chirachira 'flicker/twinkle'
choichoi '(every) now and then'
gabugabu 'drink heavily/gobble/guzzle'
giragira 'glitter/glare'
gokugoku 'drink water in big swallows'
goshigoshi 'scrub/rub hard'
guriguri 'goggle one's eyes'
gutaguta 'boil to pulp'
gutsugutsu 'boil down'
gyorogyoro 'look around with glaring eyes'
hyoihyoi 'now and then/from time to time/at intervals'
kirakira 'glitter/twinkle'
kusukusu 'titter/giggle/snicker'
kyorokyoro 'stare about/look around (restlessly)'
jirijiri 'inch by inch'
potsupotsu 'little by little/bit by bit'
potapota 'drip/dribble'
muzumuzu 'feel itchy (creepy) (in the back)'
pikapika 'glitter'
piyopiyo 'peep'
zutazuta 'tear to pieces'
kotogotoni 'in everything/in every attempt/at every turn'

1.2.4.Continuous action, state or event

Continuation is the same as repetition or iterativity except that the former refers to stative predicates whereas the latter refers to "activity" predicates.

(13).
honohono 'dimly/faintly'
guzuguzu 'slowly/lazily'
haruharu 'from a long distance/all the way'
majimaji 'look hard at/stare'
myakumyaku 'continous/unbroken'
jirojiro 'stare/gaze/look/glance at somebody'
jiwajiwa 'slowly but steadily/gradually'
sorosoro 'leisurely/slowly/little by little'
shigeshige 'steadily/fixedly'
pokapoka 'feel comfortably warm'

1.2.5.Completedness

This concept refers to "accomplishment" predicates which show the manner in which an event, an action or state happened to be realized.

(14).
bishibishi '(punish) severely (without mercy)'
boroboro 'be torn to shreds'
naminami 'to fill a glass to the brim with wine'
hotohoto 'quite/utterly/entirely/completely'
betabeta 'all over/thickly'
bikubiku 'be afraid/be in terror'

1.2.6.Large quantity, variety of objects, things spread on a large space.

Plurality in its extended sense such as many objects of the same type, a large quantity of things on the same spot or same space, etc. are referred to by reduplication in Japanese.

(15).
botsubotsu 'dots/spots'
dokadoka/doyadoya 'in a crowd/noisely'
hishihishi 'throng/crowd'
gochagocha 'pile up/clutter up'
iyoiyo 'more and more/all the more/increasingly'
kotogotoku 'all/altogether/entirely/wholly/without exception'
machimachi 'various/diverse'
madamada 'still more/still'
marumaru 'blanks/blue penciled letters (passages)'
masumasu 'more and more/still more/increasingly'
moromoro 'all/various/all sorts (kinds) of'
zorozoro 'troop/pile'
wareware 'we/us'

1.2.7.Things in bad shape

Words referring to individuals with dubious personality, physical or mental problems, or who don't behave according to the society's norms and objects which are messy or disorganized are found with this type of reduplication also. Reduplication is used here probably because these individuals are thought of being of multiple personalities. As we will see in the second part, Kinyarwanda uses reduplication also for this type of objects and individuals.

(16).
barabara 'loose'
basabasa 'messy'
bishabisha 'be sloppy'
boyaboya 'be careless/be absent-minded'
dabudabu 'loose'
dokudokushii 'a gaudy color'
dorodoro 'muddy/thick'
fukafuka 'soft (and fluffy)'
fushofusho 'reluctantly/unwillingly'
hetoheto 'be exhausted'
jimejime 'damp/moist/wet'
hosohoso 'make a poor living'
gomigomi 'dirty/squalid'
gotsugotsu 'a rugged rock (face)'
gowagowa 'rough (towels)'
gunyagunya 'flabby muscles (hands)'
gyôgyôshii 'exaggerated talk'
kirikirimai 'have hectic time from pressure of work'
kochikochi 'dry and hard'
imaimashii 'annoying/tiresome/doggone/galling'
fusafusa 'tuffy/bushy'
kusakusa 'feel wretched/depressed'
kyotokyoto 'look around restlessly/be restless (nervous)'
kutakuta 'be (utterly) exhausted/worn out'
kuyokuyo worry about'
mojamoja 'disheveled/unkempt/shaggy/scraggly'
mojimoji 'fidget/be restless'
muzamuza 'without resistance/helpless'
nebaneba 'sticky/clammy'
nichanicha 'slimy/sticky'
perapera 'thin/flimsy/sleazy'
pochapocha 'a plump girl'
moyamoya 'hazy/misty/foggy/nebulous/gloomy'
monomonoshii 'slowy/pretentious/pompous/imposing/exaggerated'
nokonoko 'shamelessly/impudently'
nukenuke 'unshamedly/brazenly'
shirazushirazu 'unconsciously/unaware'
sowasowa 'be nervous/restless'
yoboyobo 'feeble and tottery'
yowayowashii 'weak-looking/frail'
yaburekabure 'desperately'
gisugisu 'stiff/unaffable/unsociable'
shidoromodoro 'gait/disorderly/confusedly'
torotoro 'doze off'
yoreyore 'worn out'
zarazara 'feel rough'
zûzûshii 'impudent/presuming/audacious/pushing/cheeky/shameless/saucy'

It is clear in the next section that Japanese reduplication is similar to Kinyarwanda reduplication, an unrelated Bantu language spoken in Rwanda.

II. Reduplication in Kinyarwanda

The syntax and semantics of reduplication in Kinyarwanda have been analyzed in great detail in (Kimenyi, 1988) and its segmental phonology and tonology have been studies as well in (Kimenyi, forthcoming a).
Reduplication in Kinyarwanda affects either the first syllabe, the stem, some suffixes or the whole word. The latter is used with adjectives and adverbs only.

2.1. First syllable reduplication:

Eventhough Kinyarwanda has hundreds of words especially verbs with first syllable stem reduplication, this reduplication is only lexical.

17.kunyónyoomba 'to tiptoe'
kudédemaanga'to stutter'
gusésereza 'to miscut nails'
gukókora 'to clean cooking pot...'
gusésera 'to enter on the stomach'--
gukákara 'to get stiff'
gucéceka 'to become silent'
gukokoza'to crawl (chicken)'
kumámaara 'to lose temper'
kwíikokomora 'to clear the throat'
kurárama'to look up'
kubébeera 'to go around aimlessly'
gushyáshyarika 'to make look good'
kujúujuubya 'to harass'
kujóojooba 'to drip (rain)'
guhwíihwiisa 'to gossip'
kubúubuuta 'to walk bent(old age)'
kujáajaaba 'to walk around aimlessly'
kunúunuuza 'to pull with a straw'
kunyúunyuuza 'to suck'
gutóotoora 'to peel vegetables'
gukóokoora 'to prune trees'
kwíivoovoota 'to roar'
kuréereeta 'to hang loose'
kujéejeeta 'to drip (water)'
guhóohootera 'to harass'
gushwáashwaanya 'to prevent'
kudóodoora 'to knock'
kuyóoyooka 'to evaporate'
kunóonoonsora 'to examine carefully'
kunyáanyagiza 'to disperse'
kunyónyoomba 'to tiptoe'
kududubiza 'to erupt/spring'
gucyoocyoora 'to ask nutty questions'
gupyipyinyura 'to rub the body'
guhuhura 'to push'
gutatamura 'to tear up'
kuguguna 'to chew'
kugigimira 'to mumble'
gufifika' to hide'
gususumira 'to tremble'
gutitira 'to tremble'
gutitimira 'to slugger'
gushishimura 'to tear up'
kugegena 'to make a cane'
gucucuma' to shake food'

2.2.Stem reduplication:

Stem reduplication can be both lexical or grammatical.

18. kugeendageenda 'to walk around'
kuruundaruunda 'to pile up'
ikigóorigóori 'corn skeleton'
amahenéhene 'goat's milk'
guhéendaheenda 'to implore'
gukwíirakwiiza 'to share equally'
gukáambakaamba 'to crawl'
amasóniisóni 'shyness'
ikizúubazúuba 'sun's rays'

2.3.morpheme reduplication:

A handiful of suffixes such -ag- , -ar-, -ur-, etc. appear sometimes in reduplicated form.

19. gucáagagura /ku-cá-ag-ag-ur-a/ 'to cut into pieces'
gutáagaguza /ku-tá-ag-ag-ur-y-a/ 'to waste'
kuraambarara /ku-raamb-ar-ar-a/ 'to lie down'
guhagarara /ku-hag-ar-ar-a/ 'to stand up'
kuugurura /ku-ug-ur-ur-a/ 'to open the gate'
kuziikurura /ku-ziik-ur-ur-a/ 'to unbury'

2.4.Words which allow both first syllable and stem reduplication

As examples in (20) show, some verbs can appear with the first syllable reduplication or the whole stem reduplication with a slight semantic difference, however.

20. gukúkuumba 'to finish everything' -- gukúumbakuumba 'to pile everything'
kubébeera 'to disappear discreetly' -- kubéerabeera 'to walk around aimlessly'
gutútuumba 'to swallen progressively' -- gutuumbatuumba 'to swallen '

2.5.Whole Word Reduplication

Adjectives, numerals and adjectives allow whole word reduplication .

2.5.1.Adjectives:

21.
mutó 'young' -- mutóomutó 'very young'
muníni 'big' -- munínimúnini 'very big'
baké 'few' -- bakéebaké 'very few'

2.5.2.Adverbs:

22.
vubá 'fast' -- vubáavubá 'very fast'
cyaane 'much' -- cyaanecyaane/cyaanécyaane 'mostly'
buhóro 'slowly' -- buhórobúhoro 'little by little'

2.5.3.Numerals:

23.
umwé 'one' umwuúmwé 'one by one'
babiri 'two' babiribábiri 'two by two'
batatu 'three' batatubátatu 'three by three'

2.5.6.Demonstratives:

When demonstrative reduplication takes place, the presentative morpheme ngaá is inserted between the two demonstratives.

24.
aba 'these' abangáabá 'these ones'
abo 'those' abongáabó 'those ones'
iki 'this' ikingíikí 'this one'
icyo 'that' icyongíicyó 'that one'
aha 'here' ahangáahá 'here'
aho 'there' ahongáahó 'there'
ubu 'now' ubungúubu 'now'
ubwo 'then' ubwongúubwo 'then'

2.5.7.Meanings of Kinyarwanda reduplication.

Kinyarwanda redupication has the same function and the same meanings as Japanese. But it also seems to have more. Maybe Japanese does too. The other referrents which are found in Kinyarwanda are metonymy, plants and some types of animals.

2.5.7.1.plants:

The iconicity between reduplication and plants can be seen in their shape. Some of them are thin and tall. Some grow very fast. Others erupt in many buds, leaves, flowers or branches. Others like lianas crawl on the ground or grow tall and climb on other plants or trees in a slow-like movement. In (25), plants whose scientific names have been established are given. The Kinyarwanda speakers thus see some type of movement in these plants.

25.
umubagabaga cassia didymobotrya
imbátabáta plantago palmata/lannea edulis
umugobógobo
umufuumbafuumba rumex abyssinicus
umugweegwe euphorbia grantii
umugweegwe sanseviera dawei
urukoyokoyo pavetta schumanniana
urutiintibo alchornea birtella f. glabrata
urubuyabuya allophylus kiwuensis
uruziroziro vitex doniana
umuzibaziba mitragyne rubrostipulosa
umuvutavuta cadaba farinosa s.l.
umuvuungovuungo coccinea mildbraedii
kigelia africana
umuturuturu schefflera goetzenii
umutoratora hippocratea apocynoides
umutiti faurea saligna
umutobótobo englerina schubotziana/solanaceae/solanum sp.
umutete solanum aculeastrum
umutiritiri pancovia golungensis
umushyoshyo polygala ruwenzoriensis
umushishi symphonia globulifera
umushirashira annona senegalensis
umusheshe rhammus staddo
umushayishayi hangurana montana
umushabishabi asparagus falcatus
umusasa campylospermum vogelii
umunyegenyege aeschysomena schimperi/sesbania macrantha
sesbania div. spp.
umuunzeenze olea europea spp.africana
umuroondoroondo secamone africana/gongronema angolense
umurukuruku tephrosia vogelii
umusáasá limenia caffra
umusaasa
umusakasaka pavetta gardeniifolia s.l.
umukoyokoyo combretum collinum
umukoondokoondo canthium lactensens
rubiaceae div.spp.
umuhebehebe rhynchostigma racemosum
umugobagoba psendarthria hookeri
umugege myrica kandtiana
umugayigayi lepidotrichilia volkensii
umugaragara vernonia auriculifera
vernonia subuligera
ubugetugetu hedythyrsus thamnoideus
umubaribari tabernaemontana johnstonii
umubazibazi smithia elliotii
umubónobóno croton macrostachysus
galiniera coffeoides
ikibónobóno chassalia subochreata/psychotria div.spp.
ikibírabíra
urubuumburi dasylepis racemosa/rapanae melanophloes
igicuúnshu salva sp./ocimum sp.
umubugabuga clerodendum laxicymosum
umubuungobuungo embelia libeniana
umubwabwa clerodendrum laxicymosum
umucuucu solanum incanum
umudwedwe euphorbia grantii
ikeembekembe bethriocline longipes
umucaáca cynodon dactylon
agafúumbafúumba
igicumucumu bothriocline ugandensis
igiheriheri vernonia lasiopus
igishigishigi alsophila manniana
igishurúshuru triumfetta pilosa ver. nyassana
igitamatama bothriocline nyungwensis
senecio trichopterygius
ikijagajaga pavetta urundensis
umusheeshe

umushoósho
ikibugúbugu senecio trihopterygius
ikibónobóno chassalia subochreata
inteembeteembe ensette ventricosum
umuteembeteembe musa entete
igiteembeteembe
ikinetenete/igitenetene kalanchoe beniensis/crassulaceae
intiritiri cassipourea gummiflua
umutíiti faurea saligna
intyintyi allophyus channostachys
imvuvu canthium glabriflorum
urutaratara cyperaceae: cyperus dereilema
umuvúmovúmo vernonia div.ssp.
umuvuungavuungo goccinea mildbroedi/kigelia africana
umuvútavúta cadaba farinosa s.l.
ikivuvu
umuvuvu ficus sycomorus/ficus kimuenzensis
umuziroziro vitex doniana
igitaamataamba bothriocline nyungwensis/senecio trichoptergius
umutégeengerí dovyalis macrocalyx'
umusháabisháabi asparagus falcatus
umuseríseri dichaetanthera corymbosa
igishikashike guizotia scabra
umusoombosoombo allophyllus griseotementonus
umuseríseri dichaetanthera corymbasa
umukúukúuyu/umukóoyokóoyo combretum collinum s.l./faurea rochetiana subsp.
speciosa/protea div.spp./pavetta schumanniana
igikuyokuyo rhynchosia sublobato
rhynchosia procurrens
imánamáana
ikimoomo echinops amplecaulis
echinops gigantens
umukóbokóbo
ikóobokóobo
urukobekobe
akaraandaraanda
umuráandaráanda vigna oblongifolia var.parviflora
umukéenjakéenja
inganigani monanthotaxis orophila/rhynchosia hirta
umubaríbari hyparrhenia cymbaria
ikigéembégéembe carduus sp.
umukárakára nuxia floribunda
umukéenkakéenja
umukizikizi
urukobekobe
umukóbokóbo
igikuubokuubo
igikubukubu
ikimoomo echinops amplexicaulis/echinops gigantens
umukóondokóondo tarenna graveolens/vangueria apiculata/bangueria volkensii
ingobagoba
umugobogobo
umugájagája musanga leo-errarae
ikigájagája pavetta urundensis
umugaragara vernonia auriculifera/vernonia subuligera
umunugunugu clerodendrum laxicymosum
ikigéembegéembe
urugetugetu
igírigíri
irebérebe/irebárebe
umureendareeanda
umuríbaríba
umuribúribu
ikiyuundoyuundo
umukábakába
ikóonjokóonjo
igihoondohoondo dracenea steudneri
igihubahuba
igicúmuúmu bothriocline ugandensis
ikiribúribu ensete ventricosum
uruhóombohóombo coleus
igihérihéri vernonia lasiopus
umunyégenyége aeschynomena schimperi
umuvútavúta cadaba farinosa
umushaayishaayi hangurana montana/hangurana madagascariensis
umushyíimboshyíimbo dolichos formosus
umusoombosoombo allophyllus griseo-tomentosus
agashakáshaka
igishuríshuri
umushéeshé osyris wightiana
igiséengeséenge hermarthria
umusákasáka pavetta gardeniifolia s.l./tricalysia rwandensis/trimaria grandifolia ssp.tropica
ururoondoroondo
umuvuungovuungo
ikinyaminyami piper capense/vernonia subuligera
umuryáabaryáaba
imbarabara
imbuyábuya allophylus chaunostachys
ikibágabága cassia didymobotrya
umubugúbugu
umubogóbogo
urunugunugu clerodendrum laxicymo
igitsinatsina
umutaabataaba
intáabatáaba
igitaamataama bothriocline nyungwensis/senecio trichopterygius
busiimbosiimbo
ikiríingaríinga
umuzíbazíba mitragyna rubrostipulosa

2.5.7.2.Metonymy:

The meaning of the reduplicated form has a semantic association with that of the simple form. This association can be that of cause and effect, part and whole, product and origin, general and particular, content and container, etc.

26.
agasayásaya (umusayá 'jaw') 'movemement of jaws;igishakáshaka (amasaka 'sorghum') 'sorghum plant';umushaangashaanga (igishaanga 'swarm') ' swarm vegetable salt';igisharáshara (ishará 'banana leaf) 'dry banana leaf';igishazashaza (ishaza 'green pea') 'green pea plant';urushinóshíno (umushíno 'vagina) 'vagina smell after intercourse';
gushinyaashinya (ishinya 'gum') 'to tighten teeth';amahenéhene (ihené 'goat') amashunúshunu 'goat milk';urushyaambashyaamba (ishyaamba 'forest') 'forest smell';umushyaambashyaamba (ishyaamba 'forest') 'rope from the forest';gushyeshyeenga (gushyeenga 'to amuse') 'to flatter';urushyitsishyitsi (umushyitsi 'guest') 'guest shyness';ubúusobúuso (amáaso 'eyes') 'greedy look/lust';ubusogósogo (isogo 'kind of vegetable') 'isogo's grains';ibisúusasúusa (ibisúusa 'squash leaves') 'squash leaves spills';igitáabitáabi (itaábi 'tobacco') 'bad tobacco';amatámaatáma (itáma 'jaw') 'fact of inflating the jaws';anataamataama (intaama 'sheep') 'sheep milk';
umuteegateega (igiteega 'type of poison which makes people possessed')
'the healer of igiteega';igitiinditiindi (umutiindi 'poor') 'very poor';
umutobótobo (intobó 'wild aubergine') 'intobó plant';intúgutúgu ( igitúgu
'shoulder') 'shoulder muscle';itúunzitúunzi (umutúunzi 'rich') 'great wealth';
urutwáatwá (umutwa 'twa ethnic member') 'the twa way of speaking';
intwéetwé (umutwé 'head') 'plant head';ubuzúuruzúuru (izúuru 'nose') 'the fact of moving the nose';ikizúuruzúuru (izúuru 'nose') 'muscle of animals' nose';umuvumúvumu (umuvumú 'type of plant') 'type of umuvumu';
ikiyúunguyúungu (ikiyúungu 'hips') 'the place around the hips';
ikizúubazúuba (izúuba 'sun') 'sun's rays';uruzúunguzúungu (umuzuúngu 'white') 'the white's smell';ikijorojoro (ijoro 'evening) 'evening milk';
akajorojoro (ijoro 'night') 'beginning of evening';kujúumbajuumba (ikijuumba 'sweet potato ') 'to dig sweat potatoes';umujúumbajúumba
(ikijuumba 'sweet potato') 'sweet potato plant';urukakákaka (inkaká 'bull's penis') 'smell of milk from a cow which has just mated';ikigóorigóori
(ikigóori 'corn') 'corn skeleton';umukórokóro (igikóro 'yam') 'yam plant';
inkwáahakwáaha (ukwáaha 'armpit') 'smell from the armpit';ikiményiményi
(ubumenyi 'knowledge') 'proof';akaníhiníhi (kuniha 'to breathe with pain')
'sickly person';ikinnyoónnyo (innyo 'anus') 'lower part of something';
uruunturuuntu (umuuntu 'person') 'human smell';urunwaanwa/urunwaarunwa
(umunwa 'mouth') 'talks';ikinwaánwa (umunwa 'mouth') 'good conversation;
umureengereenge (Abareenge 'first people to arrive in Rwanda) 'Abarenge machette';umuhogóhogo (umuhogó 'throat') 'artery from the throat to the lungs';uruganogano (ingano 'wheat') 'wheat plant';urugóongogóongo (umugóongo 'back') 'leaf veins';kugumaaguma (uruguma 'wound on the head')
'to wound on the head';igifukúfuku (ifukú 'moleskin') 'area ruined by a moleskin';ibwaábwa (imbwá 'dog') 'dog's breast';amabúgabúga (salted cows drinking well') 'salted milk';urwúunyuunyú (umúunyu 'salt') 'salty taste';
imbókobóko (ukubóko 'arm') 'empty-handed';ikiberebere (mbere 'before')
'leftovers/residuals';icyáangaangá (kwáanga 'to hate/dislike') 'dislike /
antipathy';guhúuhuura (uruhú 'skin') 'to stratch meat on the dried skin';
urusakúsaku (urusakú 'noise') 'repeated noise'; intúgutúgu (urutúgu 'shoulder') 'shoulders' muscles'; igiséengeséenge (nyogóseenge 'father's sister') 'somebody's father's sister's daughter'; igisharáshara ( ishará 'dry banana leaf') 'dry banana leaf'; igishakáshaka ( ishaka 'sorghum') sorghum stick'; igishazashaza (ishaza 'pea') 'pea's leaf'; aamatóondotóondo (igitóondo 'morning') 'energy gained after eating'; urushyitsishyitsi ( umushyitsi 'guest') 'guest's shyness'; ubúusobúuso ( amáaso 'eyes')
staring with lust/desire'; umutobótobo (intobó 'wild berry') 'berry plant'; ikibúnobúno 'root of a tree' (ikibúno 'behind'); ibwáabwá (imbwá 'dog') 'dog's breasts'; kubwáagabwaaga (imbwá 'dog') 'to walk with difficulty'; amabúgabúga (ibúga 'rest area for cows') 'salty milk'; urwúunyuunyú (umúunyu 'salt') 'sugary taste'; ibihúrihúri (igihúri 'deaf') 'bad hearing'; akáasakúsaku (urusakú 'noise') 'chin'; gucáambacaamba
(amacáamba 'water on the bank the river caused by overflowing') 'to swim in amacáamba';
icyáayaaya (kwaaya 'to waste') 'wasteful woman'; ibíikabíika (kubíika 'to put in a safe place') 'stinginess'; icyáangaangá (kwáanga 'to hate/refuse') 'disgust/antipathy'; urwáahaahá (kwáahaaha 'to chase') 'the act of being chased'; icyáakaaká (kwaaka 'to shine') 'shining/new/beautiful'; uruhítihíti (guhíta 'to pass') 'the continuous coming and go'; kweendeendana (kweenda 'to take') 'to meet/get together'; kweengeenga (kweenga 'to brew') to cajole', ...

2.5.7.3.repetitive sound:

A lot of verbs which refer to actions or events which produce or perceive some type of sound occur in the reduplicated form. Most of these sounds are either noises, sharp sounds or some kind of inarticulated speech.

27.
kwíitotoomba 'to roar';kwíijuujuuta 'to complain talking to oneself';
kwíikokomora 'to clear the throat';kwíivoovoota 'to complain talking to onelf with anger';kujájaanganya 'to utter incoherent words';gupapaza 'to make repetitive noise';kuréshareshwa 'to talk nonsense';guhuhuma 'to resonate';guhwíihwiisa 'to murmur';urugéregére 'a noisy moving crowd';
akagéregére 'repetitive noise';kugigimiriza/kudédemaanga/kugiingimiranya 'to mumble';gufafarika 'to talk nonsense';gufífika 'to talk nonsense';
kududubiza 'to bubble';kuduudubiira 'to speak in unintelligible way';
kudúduunganya 'to reprimand';kudóodoora 'to knock on something'; kudódoomba 'to roar' (maugréer);kudídibiza 'to speak fast but articulately';
gucyoocyoora 'to tease somebody playing on words';gucaanshama/gukaankama 'to bark on somebody';ibúgutibúguti 'sound made by clothes or dry leaves';imbíimbíri 'sound made by footsteps of running animals'.

2.5.7.4.movement:

The majority of movements referred to by reduplication happen to be slow or clumsy.

28.
guséegaseega 'to move with difficulty';gushaanyashaanya 'to move very slowly because of pain';gushiingashiinga 'to start making small steps';gushyáatashyaata 'to move shaking the behind';kunnyóogannyooga 'to move very slowly because of weight';gusuumasuuma 'to vacillate';gusyaatasyaata 'to move slowly moving the behind'; gutáabataaba/gutáataaba/gutáabaaba 'to go for and forth looking for a refuge';gutáagataaga 'to move heavily legs apart';gutúutuuba/gutíitiiba
'to walk the back bent';kuzúungazuunga 'to move slowly';ikizúunguzuungu
'slow movement of a group of people';kuyóogayooga 'to walk around';
kuyúumbayuumba 'to walk wih pain';kuzúutazuuta 'to move slowly legs apart';kwíigeenzageenza 'to go keep coming around for a hidden motif';
kujáagajaaga 'to walk very slowly legs apart';kujárajara 'to keep moving around';kujégajega 'to move/shake';kujájarika/kujyáanjyarika 'to move akwardly because of diformed feet';gukéendakeenda 'to disappear';kugwéeragweera 'to move very slowly and elegantly';gukóocacooca 'to move with difficulty (tall person)';gukóondakoonda 'to walk bent';kunnyáagannyaaga /kunnyóogannyooga 'to walk with pain';kunnyáatannyaata 'to walk with difficulty (heavy person)';kunnyéebannyeeba 'to leave quietly';kunnyóonnyooba 'to tiptoe';kunyéembanyeemba 'to move around very slowly';kunyóganyoga 'to move slowly with difficulty';kunyónyoomba 'to tiptoe';gupfúkapfuka 'not to be able to stay in the same place' (cow giving birth);gupyóotapyoota 'to move fast looking around';uruhóongohóongo 'very slowly';guhwíihwiita 'to move with pain';kugáamagaama 'to walk slowly';
kugáayagaaya 'to roll from the bed';kugóomagooma (kugóomaanga/kugóomagira) 'to walk around doing nothing';kugóoyagooya 'to move around slowly';kudiridiimba 'to walk back and forth;kudíigadiiga/kudíigiiga 'to walk slowly because of big stomach';gucóocooba 'to run with fast short steps the back bent';gucíiciikana 'to go back and forth because of too much work';gucáaracaara 'to go back and forth';gucáambacaamba/
gucáambaamba 'to swim near the shore in short and dirty water';kubwéerabweera 'to walk around without knowing what to do';kubwáagabwaaga/kubwáatabwaata 'to walk with pain because of the size of the stomach';kubúyabuya 'to move because of nervosity';kubúutabuuta /kubúubuuta 'to walk slowly the back bent';kubúungabuunga 'to move with heaviness';kubúundabuunda 'to walk bent in order not to be seen';kubéeyabeeya 'to wander aimlessly';kubéenjabeenja 'to move jumping because of leg problems',kubáandabaanda 'to vascillate';kubéendabeenda 'to disappear from the horizon';kubéebeeta 'to walk fast the back bent';kubáyabaya 'to wander';

2.5.7.5.iterativity:

Many verbs and nouns which refer to repetitive events or actions occur in the reduplicated form.

29.
gusamasama 'to harcel somebody repetitively/to chase somebody from all corners';gusáambasaamba 'to desire for a long time (gusáamba 'agonize');
gusánasana (gusána 'to fix) 'to fix the whole object';gushaakashaaka (gushaaka 'to look') 'to look all over/to do research';gushámashamwa/gusháamashaama 'to desire a lot';gushoondashoonda (gushoonda 'to bite')/kudoondadoonda 'to peck repetitively';gushukaashuka /guhéendaheenda 'to cajole';gushunaashuna 'to keep biting';gushwáashwaanya 'to do one's best';kuréhareha 'to desire';kuremaarema 'to fix';kuréembareemba 'to put a small quantity of oil';kuréengareenga 'to disappear in the horizon';kuréesareesa /kuréeseesa 'to turn the attention to';kuriindariinda/guhéendaheenda 'to cajole';kurúungaruunga 'to watch from a distance';kurúruunganya 'to lie';ikirurúma 'falls';umurúruumbá 'greed';kurúuruuta 'to go around begging'; kurwaarwaanya/kurwaanyarwaanya 'to try not to fight';guhétaheta 'to do one's best without success';guhíigiiga 'to quarrel';guhíshaahisha 'to hide';uruhítihíti 'shuttle';guhíiyahiiya 'to do one's best without success';
guhúgahuga 'to be distracted';guhúukwahuukwa 'to very frightened';
guhúnahuna 'to smell',guhúnyahunya 'to do useless things';ihúutihúuti 'rush/zeal';guhagaahaga 'to inflate';guháamahaama 'to do one's best';
kugáandagaanda 'tø become thin';gukúbaakuba 'to fold repetitively;gukwáanyakwaanya 'to work hard ';gukwíirakwiiza 'to put/give evenly';kumóomotora (kumótora) 'to hit repetitively;akamyóomyooso 'excitement to anger';kunáamanaama 'to have many meetings'; kuneekaneeka 'to spy on somebody';ibinéezáneezá 'gaiety';nkánaankána 'on purpose';kunnyáannyaaga 'to rain';kunóozanooza 'to taste slowly';kunweenganweenga 'to ask with insistence';kunwiikanwiika 'to refuse to talk';kunyámwaanyamwa 'to desire strongly';kunyáanyaasa/kumáamaata 'to hit slightly';kunyéganyega 'to shake/to be loose';kunyúunyuuza 'to suck';kunyúunyuuka 'to become thin';
kwooshyooshya 'amadouer/enjoler';gupfúkaapfuka 'to cover with care';
gupfúnyaapfunya 'to fold';gupfuutapfuuta 'to grind sorghum';gupyipyinyura 'to rub the skin while washing';kuráangaraanga 'to be distracted';
kureebareeba 'to do one's best to help';kurégarega/kudégadega/kurébareba '
to shake/to be loose';kubágabaga 'to treat gently';kunáanaaba/kuréereeta 'to be loose/hanging (clothes)';kwíifashafasha/kwíihaatahaata 'to do one's best with difficulty';kwíihamaahama/kwíiharahara 'to do one's best with difficulty';kwíihinaanina 'to fold legs and arms';kwíikokoombeka/kwíikoonkobeka/kwíikuunkubika 'to constantly want to harm somebody';kwíimuunyamuunya 'to do a lot of effort not to smile or laugh';imiíndorindóri 'agitation due to lust/desire';kwíinugaanuga/kwíirabaraba 'to trust';kwíiruundaruunda 'to assemble'/pile';kwíiyaambayaamba 'to do one's best to get somewhere';kwíiyuungayuunga/kwíiremaarema 'to slowly recover to wealth or health';
kujágajaga 'to look for something everywhere';kujámajamwa 'to do endless and useless things';kujáanjagura 'to break into small pieces';kujéejeeta 'to drop';kujíigajiiga 'to hesitate';kujóojooba 'to rain ',urujoojo 'small rain';
kujóonjoora 'to select';kujorojoomba/gufúrufuumba 'to be busy doing a lot of things';kujúugajuuga 'to be busy';gutitimira 'to tremble';
kujúujuubya 'to harcel';kujúujuuta/kujúujuuba 'to be lost';kujúuyajuuya 'to be very busy';gukábakaba 'to touch';gukaandakaanda 'to massage';gukanyaakanya 'to recover from illness';amaandaraanda 'continuous stupid talk';gukaatakaata 'pétrir';gukéba(a)keba 'to vascillate'; ibikéezikeezi 'dazzles';gukígaakiga 'to take care with caution';gukíikakiika 'to take care with caution';gukiingakiinga/guhíshaahisha/kugiingagiinga 'to hide';gufátaafata 'to try to hold something which is slipping from the hands';gufiindafiinda 'to try to guess';gufúufuuta 'to revive fire with breath';gufufuma(anga) 'to swallen';gufúrufuumba/ gucúrucuumba/ gufúrafura 'to do a lot of things at the same time';kudúuyaduuya 'to be busy doing worthless things';akadubidubi 'unending rain';kudúubaduuba /kudúuduuba 'to survive doing odd jobs';kudodoma 'to have diarrhea';gucoonshoma 'to eat with a lot of appetite';kubyíimbabyiimba 'to start putting on some weight';kubúrabuza 'to harass';kubéeshyabeeshya 'to tell small repetitive lies';kubéerabeera 'to live in misery';kubáangabaanga 'to keep searching without luck';kwáahaaha 'to chase from everywhere';kuryáaryaata 'to itch';kuruundaruunda 'to pile';gukúnyaakunya 'to pile';kuryaarya/kuryóoshyaryooshya 'to talk sweet';kuráandaraanda 'to grow all around';umuryáaryá 'envy to keep eating';ikirézirézi 'bad taste in the mouth', etc.

2.5.7.6.intensity

Intensity here implies the degree of energy or quantity used to do or to procude something.

30.
ubusáabusá (ubusá 'nothing') ' a very small quantity';intukutuku (intuku 'red') 'very red';vubáavubá (vubá 'fast') 'very fast';ikijeegijéegi 'very tender';igikúumbukúumbu 'very old';urubogóbogo 'very blue/crystal clear';gushwíishiiriza 'to deny categorically'; kwáamaama 'to look for with all the energy and means but without success';

2.5.7.7.large quantity

Reduplication is used in many words which denote a lot of objects of the same kind or many things found in the same space

31.
gukáyakaya 'to put cattle together';ubukorikori 'knowledge of doing a lot of things';amakuumbukuumbu 'small quantity'; inkúundukúundu 'small quantity';
kumógamoga 'to pick up everything';`urunnyíiginnyíigi ' a group of kids';
gupfupfunyuka 'to come out in a large quantity';ibiráapfaráapfa 'leftovers which are insignificant';kuráapfaraapfa 'to pick up small things here and there';gucucumura 'to pull out many things';kuboogabooga 'to be very full'(liquid)';agasámusámu 'large quantity of alcoholic beverage which makes somebody drunk';ibishakáshaka 'a lot of things which ressemble sorghum'; udutúugutuugu/ubucóogocóogo/ubucóogoógo 'a large quantity of small things';gutuuntumuka 'to fall in large quantity';imijebejebe 'wrinkles';
kujúmaajuma'to put together small things';akagirígi 'a running crowd'; akarúundurúundu ' a pile of small objects'.

2.5.7.8.birds/insects

Reduplication refers to either the size and shape of the the animal such as tall legs or long necks, many legs or the kind of sound that these animals make.

32.
ikijwáangajwáanga 'mocking bird';uruyóongoyóongo 'heron';inkúrakúra 'peewit';ikiryógoryó(go) 'kind of bird (French 'bulbul')';akadíihidíihi 'kind of aquatic bird';ikibiribiri cuckoo'; umubaangabaanga 'kind of fish'; ijweéjweri 'winged ant'; inkóorikóori 'white winged peewit'; ikinyúgunyúgu 'butterfly'

2.5.7.8.exaggerated size (tallness/smallness/bigness)

Words which refer to people or objects with abnormal size in height, length, width are also found in the reduplicated form.

33.
urujúgujúgu 'very tall person'; umuhóogohóogo 'very tall person'; irihunahuna 'very long spear'; rugáabagáaba 'very tall person'; ikigínigíni 'very fat child';
ingwíingwiiri 'very small'; urudáandaári 'very thin'; urujógojógo 'tall and thin'; injarijari 'very tiny person'; nyoongonyoóngo 'tall and thin'; icyaayaaya 'a very large valley'

2.5.7.9.completeness or perfection

This refers to actions or events for which a great effort has been made to bring to completion or to realization.

34.
gutsiratsira 'to have all ears closed';gutsootsooba 'to finish';kuvaavaanuka 'to be finished';kuzibaaziba 'to be obstructed';kwíikweekweetura 'to take all clothes off';kwíimaangamaanga 'to parade oneself in new clothes';kwíimogamoga 'to make oneself look good';kujígajiga 'to be comfortably rich';kwíibumbabumba 'to be completely round/spheric';inkenekene 'very tender plant of sorghum/sugar cane/corn';gukweekweetura 'to deny categorically';kunóonoora/kunóonoonsora 'to finish completely';kunózaanoza 'to chew completely';kunuumanuuma 'to make disappear completely';ikinyumaanyuma 'very last';kurimaarima 'to massacre';guhúhura 'to kill completely';guhéraheza 'to finish completely';kudwáangadwaanga 'to mix completely';kubúkabuka 'to put order'; kwáagaaga(nya) 'to cover completely (clouds)',

2.5.7.10.pejorative meaning:

Reduplication is used here to refer actions, states or events which are looked down upon by the society and to individuals and objects which are despised.

35.
kujojoma 'to become fat';ikijójoro 'bad tobacco';ikimagamaga 'stupid girl';
akanyógonyógo 'person without energy';gupfáapfaana 'to become stupid';
ikireeberébe 'long and hanging';indéeng(a)eréenge 'talkative lazy person';
ikirímaríma 'stupid person';ikirógorógo 'stupid and crippled person';guhwáagahwaaga 'to be confused in speech';igihweéhwe 'liar'; guhwíirahwiira 'to act crazy';amaháamiháami 'without rhyme and reason'; akagéendegéende 'lazy';kugwéegweeza 'to live very poorly';kwaanjwaanjwa 'to to start or to do something without hope of sussess';gusháandashaanda 'to do something fast without care';igishógoshógo 'something which is very light/stupid person';igishúgushúgu 'stupid';agashyéendeshyéende 'lazy person';gutéekateekwa 'to speak in an incoherent manner';ntyoontyó 'miserable person';ikijáandijáandi 'idiot'ikibíimbabiimba 'impotent';kudwéedweeza 'to live miserably';ubudúuridúuri 'calomnies'; ikidéeyidéeyi 'spoiled child';kudáabadaaba 'to have a good life'; igicáabacáaba 'half-empty/non-finished ;kubwáanabwaana 'to walk or behave like a child';imbúrubúru 'greedy/glouton';gukóonjoonjora 'to work with wood carelessly';kunéenganéenga 'to be lazy';agahúrihúri 'rumor';
ibihúrihúri 'bad hearing';ubucóoricóori 'insignificant words';
amaankuumbukuumbu/amaankoombokoombo 'nonsense'
kwaabaaba 'to move clumsly', kwáasaasa (kwáasa 'to cut firewood) 'to divulge a secret',
kubáandabaanda 'to lose balance'; ikibúgabúga 'bad water';

Concluding Remarks

All these examples clearly show that Japanese reduplication is similar to Kinyarwanda reduplication. Although other types of reduplication are also found such as consonant reduplication in Japanese and first syllable reduplication in Kinyarwanda, stem reduplication is the most productive in both languages. The meanings expressed by reduplication happen also to be the same in Japanese and Kinyarwanda . It is interesting also to note that Japanese "impressionistic" reduplications ressemble ideophonic Kinyarwanda reduplications in that some of them add the "parasitic" or "intrusive" syllable -ri (Kimenyi, forthcoming b), as examples from both languages show:

36.
battari 'suddenly/abruptly'
bikkuri 'be surprised/be astonished'
hakkiri 'clearly/distintly'
hissori 'quiet/still'
mikkari 'smiling'
sappari 'frank/refreshed/completely'
shikkari 'firmly/tightly/fast/securely'
sokkuri 'altigether/entirely'
ukkari 'carelessly/inadvertently/thoughtlessly'

37.
a.jagajaga--->jagarijagari 'sound of leaves or grass shaken by wind'
jabújabú--->jaburijaburi 'sound of something hitting water'
tsiitsi --->tsiri/tsiritsiri/tsiriri 'very dark'
gi(gi) --->girigiri 'rhythm of drum beats'
jegejege --->jegerijegeri 'sound of a repetitive noise inside an object'
pyii--->pyiriri 'sound of liquid in contact with a hot object'
b.papari 'sound made by something falling or rolling'
boombori 'dull repetitive noise'
taritari 'fast or running steps'
diridiri 'sound of footsteps'/'very dark'
bibiribibiri 'sound of drum beats'
caburicaburi (syn.bugutibuguti) 'sound made by clothes of a walking person'
jabújabú---->jaburijaburi sound of fast movement of an object hitting water'
duumburi 'sound of something falling in the water'

These same concepts which are expressed in Japanese and Kinyarwanda by reduplication are found in other languages as well by the use of the same reduplication process or by sound symbolism as the following English examples show. The phenosthemes (consonant-liquid) : -C(C)le or -Cer ( 38) or the the liquild -l, -wl (39), are used to show repetive events (movement, sound, sight), the prenasalized velar (-ng-/-nk-) (40) a resonant sound, and the consonant repetition: t-t, k-k, m-m, p-p, b-b, etc. (41) repeated sound.
(38).
mumble, stumble, fumble, rumble, grumble, crumble, bumble, jumble,
squabble, smuggle, struggle, scuffle, sprinkle, mingle, twinkle, wrangle, wrinkle,
scramble, doodle, giggle, gaggle, shuttle, shuffle, tickle, tackle, rattle, dazzle,
chuckle, sizzle, babble, bubble, cackle, prattle, baffle, dandle, waddle, waggle,
dangle, coddle, gobble, puddle, hobble, mutter, natter, nibble, nimble, tweedle,
bungle, dingle, fiddle, fizzle, foozle, footle, fondle, fribble, gabble, garble, gargle,
hackle, heckle, haggle, hustle, whistle, huddle, bundle, hurdle, hurtle, dribble,
drizzle, dwindle, inkling, scribble, scrabble, jabber, chatter, jiggle, jostle, justle,
jingle,jungle, joggle, juggler, kindle, mangle, meddle, muffle, muddle, muzzle,
fuddle, nozzle, paddle, piffle, rabble, ramble, ruffle, scrabble, scramble,scuttle,
scuffle, dabble, shamble, shemozzle, shingles, shudder, tremble, skimble-skamble,
slender, slobber, snaffle, snigger, spangle, sparkle, spatter, scatter, splutter,
squander, squiggle, squitter, stagger, stammer, straddle, straggle, stutter, swaddle,
swagger, swindle, swingle, tattle, tinkle, trickle, trinkle, trundle, truckle, twiddle,
utter, waddle, wander, whisper, wiggle, winkle, wrangle, waggle, splatter, twaddle,
jitter, stagger, grapple, startle, flatter, ripple, cripple, chortle, blister, grabble,
blather, blither, wobble, pimble, brabble, squiggle, sputter, splutter, warble

(39).

swirl, twirl, trill, thrill, drill, chill, shrill, skirl, snarl, squall,
brawl, crawl, drawl, scrawl, sprawl, growl, howl, owl, scowl, yowl

(40)
clang, clink, clank, bang, blink, ding, ding-dong, ring, sing, ping, ping-pong,
dingle, dangle, prang, shingles, sling, slink, spank, spring, sprinkle, sting, swing,
swingle, tingle, tinkle, twinkle, wink, wrangle, wring, yank, zing...

(41)
pop, prop, trot, blubber, bubble, twist, stutter, pamper, giggle, lullaby, roar, crack,
fluff, mumble, goggle, grog, totter, pimple, plop, quack, titillate, mimic, tetter, titter, toot, teeter, click, clock, clank, clack, twitter, clink, ...

If these two unrelated languages behave exactly the same as far as the form and function of reduplication is concerned, it is because this is indeed an area of grammar which shows the iconic aspect of language. This iconicity is diagrammatic because of the perfect isomorphism between the signans and the signatum. A one-to-one correspondance between the form and the function is noted. Although all languages have reduplication, there are those which use it more than others. The use of it might depend on whether a language is "expressive" or not. Japanese and Kinyarwanda happen to be "expressive"
languages (Kimenyi, forthcoming c and d).

References

Alfonso, Anthony. 1974. Japanese Language Patterns. Vol.I&Vol.II. Tokyo: Sophia
University, L.L.
Jacob, Irénée. 1984. Dictionnaire Rwndais-Français. Tome I-III. Butare, Rwanda:
Institut National de Recherche Scientifique.
Kimenyi, Alexandre. 1983. Une analyse sémiolinguistique des plantes médicinales et rituelles du Rwanda. Science, Culture et Education. Revue de l'Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche Scientifique. Kigali, Rwanda
Kimenyi, Alexandre. 1988. The syntax and semantics of reduplication in Kinyarwanda: A semiotic account. La Linguistique 18, 2: 35-45.
Kimenyi, Alexandre. forthcoming. The structure of ideophones in Kinyarwanda: form, fonction, context and content. STUF.
Kimenyi, Alexandre. forthcoming. A Tonal Grammar of Kinyarwanda: An Autosegmental and Metrical Analysis.
Kimenyi, Alexandre. forthcoming. Sight, Sound, Smell and Sense in Kinyarwanda:
Studies in the Iconicity of Language.
Kimenyi, Alexandre. forthcoming. The Bantu-Japanese Connection: Iconicity and Expressivity in Japanese and Kinyarwanda.
Mukata, &L, Hyman. 1990. Reduplication in Kinande. Phonology.
The New Crown Japanese-English Dictionary. 1972. Third Edition. Tokyo, Japan:
Sanseido Co., Ltd.
Peirce, Charles. 1931-1958. Collected Writings. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.
Troupin, Georges. 1978. Flore du Rwanda. Tervuren, Belgique: Musée Royal de l'Afrique Central.