Language, Names and Religious Beliefs
by Alexandre Kimenyi
California State university at Sacramento

Abstract

Using Kinyarwanda, the national language of Rwanda, this article shows that it is possible to get insight into people's worldview and religious beliefs by just looking at the vocabulary of their language as well as their language use. This is the approach that anthropological linguists have been using to understand a society's culture.

Introduction

All societies have their philisophy and religious befiefs. Their content becomes very clear when societies have written documents such as the Bible, the Koran or holy people who preach, explain and interpret those documents. In oral societies, however, it is not easy to draw the line between philosopy and religion on the one hand and on the other hand to know for sure what they are because oral texts are ambiguous and many times contradictory. Some scientists even raise the question as to whether ethnophilosophy is indeed philosophy since true philosophy requires an open intellectual debate and individual thinking. Despite this controvery, using Kinyarwanda, this paper shows that society's language can shed ligth on people's worldview and religious beliefs. The lexicon, personal names, proverbs, greeting expressions, swearing words and insults provide information about people's values, their philosophy and what they think about God. They reveal, for instance, the concept of God, his physical and moral attributes, his relation to the world and to the people.

Concept and names of God.

The name of God in Kinyarwanda is Imana pronounced (imáana). Morphologically, it consists of three morphemes the prepefix i-, the class marker -n- for class 9 (CL9), and the stem -máana. The morphological representation is thus /i-n-máana/. Nouns belonging to this class pluralize in class 11. The singular and the plural look the same. The difference is only manifested in the kind prefix that modifiers take. For demonstratives and possessors, for instance, the prefix is -yi- for singular and -zi- for plural as shown by the following experssions : (Imáana y'í Rwaanda) 'God of Rwanda' and (imáana izo) 'Great! So much the better.'Literally 'those gods'. It is also interesting to note that the majority of words that belong to class 9 belong to animals and birds and most importantly to derived praise-names which are given to great warriors and national heroes. The same word imana is also used to refer to objects which are metonymically related to it such as 'luck' kugira imáana 'to have luck', any object used by the diviner umupfumu for divination kuragura such as chicken and lamb entrails, an object used for divination that ia worn as a charm, a ficus plant that has grown in the spot where the object used for divinaion has been buried, a national icon, a nice person, …
The language doesn't provide any information, however, about the nature of God, whether he has anthropological features or not. There is no information about his gender either, whether he is female or male. What is certain is that Imana doesn't have a family, wife/husband or children as revealed by the the following proverb :

Imana ntigira umuryango.
God doesn't-have family
'God doesn't have a family'.
The proverb also means that God is impartial, doesn't take sides or favors some individuals over others.

Other names used to refer to Imana are Nyagasani, Rugira, Rurema, Iyakare and Iyambere. Nyagasani (nyagasani) /nya+a+ka+sani/ means 'the one who has luck'. Rugira (rugirá) from the verb kugira signifies 'the one who causes everything or the owner of everything'. Rurema /ru-rem-a/ 'CL11-create-asp' means the creator. Iyakare (iyakare)/iya+kare/ 'of+CL9+early' means 'that of early' or 'of times immemorial'. This implies that God is 'ancient' or the oldest being. Iyambere (iyaambere) /iya+imbere/ 'of+CL9+before' 'the one of before'. The name implies that God was the first to exist and that he preceded everything.

Physical and moral attributes of God.

Imana is very much similar to the Christian God. He is the creator of everything, he is almighty, he knows everything, he is everywhere. He loves his creation, he loves everybody and doesn't discrimate. Personal names and proverbs illustrate these attributes. The following personal names show some of these attributes.

Niyongabo
It-is-it-that-is-shield/warrior
'It is He who is the shield/real warrior'
Niyonzima
it-is-it-that-is-healthy/alive
'It is He who is healthy/alive'
Niyonkuru
it-is-He-who-is-old/great/important
'It is He who is the oldest/the greatest/the most important.

The name Niyongabo shows that Imana is almighty. Niyonzima implies that God is the only sane being in the universe, that he is wise and plans everything according to his well-thought plans, whereas the name Niyonkuru implies that Imana is the greatest/the oldest/the most important. Thus noun phrase umuntu mukuru means an old person or a very important person. Umujyi mukuru means not an old city but the capital. Grandfather and grandmother are referred to as sogokuru and nyogokuru, respectively; literally meaning old father and old mother.
This concept of thinking of God as the oldest/the most important and the greatest is shared by many other Bantu languages such Zuku and Xhosa where God is also called Nkulunkulu 'the greatest of the great'/'the oldest'

The following proverbs show that Imana is good, generous and doesn't hold grudge.

Umubande w'ibyago urutwa n'imanga y'Imana.
valley of misery is-inferior to precipice of God
'The valley of misery is inferior to God's precipice'.
Imana ntigira inzigo.
God he-doesn't-have revenge
'God doesn't avenge/retaliate,
Imana ntivuna.
God he-doesn't-tire/exhaust
'God doesn't create problems (to anybody)'.

The expressions kurota Imana 'to dream God' and kubana n'Imana 'to live with God' used to mean 'good night' and 'bye bye', respectively, show him to be a good and caring parent and guardian.

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Names related to God

Kinyarwanda names is one area of language use which shows how the users conceive God. All the names show clearly that there is only one God, almighty, creator of everything, omniscient, good, generous, etc.

Niyoyita 'It is He who gives names', Niyonkuru 'It is He who is Great', Niyonzima 'It is He who is healthy', Niyongabo 'It is He who is a shield/soldier', Niyibizi 'It is He who knows', Niyishaka 'It is He who wants', Niyongira 'It is Him that I have', Niyonsenga 'It is Him that I pray to', Niyonsaba'It is Him that I ask for help', Niyombaza 'It is Him that I ask, Habarurema 'the creator exists', Habarugira, 'the causer/possessor exists', Habumukiza 'the savior exists', Habumuremyi 'the creator exists', Habarurema 'The creator exists', Habimana 'God exists', Habiyaremye 'the one who created exists', Habonimana 'Only God sees', Habyarimana 'Only God gives birth', Harerimana 'Only God raises (children'), Hakizimana 'Only God cures/saves/makes rich', Havugimana 'Only God speaks', Hitimana 'Only God gives names', Hategekimana 'Only God rules', Hatungimana 'Only God possesses/owns', Maniraho 'God is there/exists', Manirakiza 'God saves/cures/makes rich', Manirareba 'God watches', Maniragaba 'God gives', Bizimana 'Only God knows it', Bimenyimana 'Only God knows/understands it', Bigirimana 'Only God does it', Nsengimana 'I pray to God', Nsengiyumva 'I pray to the one who understands', Nsengumuremyi 'I pray to the creator', Nsengiyaremye 'I pray to the one who created', Nizeyimana 'I trust God', Ngendahimana 'I walk because of God/I walk in God's space', Ndahimana 'I am/exist because of God', Nahimana 'It is up to God', Nkunzumuremyi 'I like the creator', Twagirimana 'We may have God', Mbarushimana'I have God on my side more than you/them' , Mukeshimana'I have him/her because of God', Muhawenimana 'S/he given to me by God.', Mukamana 'property of God, 'Nyiramana 'follower of God'. The last two names are female names. The onomastic prefixes muka- and nyira- can be added to any name to create a female name.

Rwandan Cosmology

Rwandans believe in the existence of three separate worlds : the sky, the world and the underworld. The sky is ruled by Inkuba 'Thunder', the world by Umwami 'King' and the underworld by Urupfu 'Death'. It is not clear who the inhabitants of the sky are. The earth is where humans and animals live and the underworld is where dead people live. The world of the underwiorld in Kinyarwanda is called ikuzimú or mu kuzimú. The expression comes from the verb stem -zím- 'be extinguished (fire)' or 'be exterminated'. The underworld is peopled by abazímu singular umuzímu 'spirit or ghost' literally meaning 'lifeless people'.
The verb stem for both the underworld and spirit are the same -zím- and the suffix -u- is the same. The only difference is the high tone placement which is found on the stem vowel in the former and the vowel suffix in the latter. It is not clear, however, if the stem -zim- 'healthy' or 'alive' as in abantu bazima 'healthy, alive, decent people' is related to -zím- 'extinguish/be exterminated'. In any case, the world is inhabitated by abazima 'live people' whereas the underworld is inhabitated by abazimú. The spirits 'abazímu can be be good or bad. They can protect or harass their descendants. All language data suggest that life after death and the life of abazimu is not enviable. The spirits seem to be miserable and lonely.
The concept of heaven is not found in the language. God doesn't seem to have a specific private place of residence. He is believed to reside everywhere. This doen't mean that Rwandans believe in pantheism, however. Nor should the concept of animism be applied to the religion of Rwanda. When people die, they are supposed to join him. The euphemistic expression for dying in Kinyarwanda gupfa is kwitaba Imana 'to respond to God's call'. All Rwandans are monotheist. Death 'Urupfu' and Thunder 'Inkuba' can be considered as deities since in the Rwandan mythology, they are assigned their own forces and sometimes can even compete or challenge Imana. The creation myths state that in the beginning death didn't exist or if did, people would resurrect. According to the legends, people die because a greedy old lady agreed to hide Death 'Urupfu' by swallowing it when Imana was chasing him for something bad he had done. The reason why dead people don't rise from the tomb is also due to the jealousy of a co-wife who knocked her head with a heavy stick when she resurrected. Although Imana's favorite home is Rwanda because it is where he spends the night as shown by the following proverb, Rwandans are not henotheist.
Imana yirirwa ahandi igataha i Rwanda
God spends-the-day elsewhere he-goes-home to Rwanda
'God spends the day someplace else but spends the night in Rwanda'.

Predestination

Banyarwanda believe that before everybody is born God has already decided each human being 's destiny. There is nothing that can be done to change the course. This is illustrated by the following proverbs.

Uhawe n'Imana ntiyamburwa n'umuyaga.
who-is-given by God s/he-is-not-dispossessed by wind
'S/he who receives somethning from God is not dispossessed by the wind.'
Umwanzi agucira icyobo Imana igucira icyanzu.
enemy s/he-makes-for-you hole God he-makes-for-you compound-exit
'An enemy digs a hole for you while God is making a secret exit for you.'
Umugisha w'Imana ntuhamagarwa uriizana.
blessing of God it-is-not-called it-comes-by-itself
'God's blessing is not called for it comes by itself.'
Uwarasiwe n'Imana ni we urasirwa n'inshuti.
s/he-is-shot-for by God is him/her she-is-shot-for by friends
'S/he who God has shot the game for s/he is the one that friends shoot for.'
Uwo Imana imeneye amata, ntiyunamuzwa amaboko.
Uwo Imana ihaye amata ntashyiramo amazi.
whom God he-gives milk s/he-doesn't-put-in-it water
'S/he to whom God gives milk s/he doesn't mix it with water'.
him/her God pours-for milk it-is-not-lifted-with arms
'S/he for whom God pours milk down, the milk is not lifted by hands.'
Ntawiha icyo Imana itamuhaye.
Nobody-gives-himself/herself what God he-doesn't-give-him/her
'Nobody can give himself/herself what God has not given him/her.'
Upfuye akuruta n'yo ageze ikuzimu arakuruta.
who-does s/he-is-superior-to-you even if s/he-arrives underworld s/he-is-superior-to-you
'S/he who dies superior to you even when s/he arrives in the underworld remains superior to you. '
Uwo umuzimu azicira mu nsi y'urugo agira ngo ni we ufite umupfumu.
him/her spirit it-will-kill in earth of compound-fence thinks that it-is him/her s/he-has diviner
'The one that the dead spirit will kill in front of his compound thinks that he has a diviner.'
Wibwira neza ugahirwa nabi.
you-tell-yourself well you-are-lucky bad
'You plan well but you don't succeed well.'
Iyo urupfu rwagutumiye nturara.
when death it-invites-you you-don't-spend-the-night
'When death invites you, you can't spend the night.'
Kaziri ntirengwa
destiny it-is-not surpassed
'Destiny is not surpassed.'
Nyamunsi ntitsindwa.
destiny it-is-not-surpassed
'Destiny is never defeated'
Iminsi nticuza Imana.
days they-don't-dispossess God
'Destiny doesn't dispossess God.'
Inkuba ikubita urugo ntikubita ubugingo.
thunder it-strikes compound-fence it-doesn't-strike life
Inkuba ntikubita umunyabugingo.
thunder it-doesn't-strike who-has-life
Iyo nyamunsi yaciye ishumi, nta mubyeyi uyihisha ikibando.
when destiny it-cut link there-is-not parent who-hides-from-him baby
'When destiny cuts the link, there is no mother who can hide her baby.'
Iyo Serupfu yaje, Semiti ntaharara.
when Death he-comes Medecine he-doesn't-spend-the-night-there
'When Death comes, Medecine doesn't spend the night.'
Hagena Imana.
there-decides God
'It is God that decides (everything)'.
Hica umunsi.
there-kills day
'It is destiny that kills.'
Icyo Imana iguhaye urakira.
what God he-gives-you you-accept
'What God gives you you accept it.'
Icyo Imana igututse ni cyo kikwica.
what God he-insults-you is what it-kills-you
'What God curses you is what kills you.'
Icyo umuntu agaya Imana irara ikirema.
what person s/he-criticizes God he-spends-the-night he-creates-it
'What a person criticizes of God, God spends the night creating it.'
Iminsi ikora umugabo mu nnyo ngo shiii.
destiny it-touches man in anus it-makes shiii
'Days touch in the man's behind and it makes shiii! >Destiny mocks people
Iminsi irisha umugabo ikivuza.
days they-make-eat man an-old-squash
'Destiny makes a man eat an old squash'

Why Rwandans don't pray to God

In Rwanda and many other societies people become religious and turn to God mostly when they are in trouble , have serious health problems or are getting too old thus approaching death. To pray to God in these circumstances is seen in traditional Rwanda as trying to bribe him, which can be too costly. This belief is illustrated by the following proverb.

Imana iraguha, ntimugura, iyo muguze iraguhenda.
God gives-you you-don't-buy, if you-buy he-overcharges-you
'God gives you, you don't buy from him, if you buy, he overcharges you.'

God doesn't need people's players. Since Imana is omniscient, omnipotent, good and generous, he can save people from their trouble when he wants to.
Imana has his own plans and is very patient. He doesn't act or react on the spot of the moment.
Imana itanga ishaka.
God he-gives he-wants
'God gives when he wants'.
Imana niguha ntuyimanuze
God if-he-gives-you don-t-ask-too-much-from-him
'If God gives you (something) don't abuse'.
Imana ihora ihoze
God avenges being-quiet/silent
Imana irahora amaherezo igahora.
God keeps-quiet/silent in-the-end he-avenges
'God keeps quiet/silent but in the end he avenges'.

To pray to God is seen as asking too much from him 'kugondoza Imana'. This is what the two proverbs below mean :

Ugowe agora Imana
Who-is-exhausted exhausts God
'Who is exhausted exhausts God'
Ukanura cyane Imana igafata mu ryayo.
You-stare a-lot God touches in his (eye)
'When you stare too much God closes his (eye)'.
The two proverbs warn people not to abuse of God's generosity. It is a waste of time since knowing everything and caring about his creatures, he may intervene without being asked.
Rwandans believe that God has done a lot for us and needs to be left alone. The relationship with God is personalized. There are no holy days or holy places for him. There is no need to preach about him either because nobody doubts his existence. There is no need for proseltyzing, either.

Instead of praying to God or worshiping God, people pray to or worship abazimu 'spirits' instead. Families have shrines where they go and talk to the spiirits of their ancestors. These shrines are called indaro phonetically (indáaro] from /i-n-ráar-o/ meaning 'a pleace when one sleeps'. The stem -ráár- means to sleep, i- is the preprefix, -n-the prefix marker for class 9 [CL9) and -o, the nominalizer suffix.

The paradox of transcendent and imminent God

Although Imana spends the night in Rwanda and cares about everybody, he always appears to be remote and removed. He doen't interfere with people's lives and actions. He allows people to do whatever they want whether it is good or bad. Rwandans thus understand that they have to depend on themselves to improve their lives and to make their world a better place to live.
The following proverbs illustrate this befief.

Imana ifasha uwifashije.
God he-helps who-s/he-helps-himself/herself
'God helps who helps himself/herself'
Habyarimana abantu bakarera.
there-gives-birth-God people they-raise
'It is God who gives birth and it is the people who raise (the children)'
Imana ikubyarira si yo ikurerera.
God he-gives-birth-fro-you it-is-not him it-raises-for-you
'The God who gives birth to your children is not him who raises them for you'.
Imana iguha inka, ntikubwiriza kuziragira
God he-gives-you cows it-doesn't-tell-you to-graze-them
'God gives cows to you but he doesn't tell you how to teach them how to graze'.
Haba Rugira haba rugizi.
there-is Causer there-is agent
'There exists the causer and there exists the doer'.
Abagiye inama Imana irabasanga.
those-who-ask-each-other advice God he-joins-them
'Those who consult each other, God joins them'.

Since Rwandans have to take their destiny into their own hands despite the existence of a caring and loving God, human beings who fail to fulfill their responsibilities to contribute to the society are linguistically demoted to the inanimate objects category. This category is marked by the prefix -ki- of class 7 (CL7) which changes into -gi- before nominal stems which start with voiceless consonants (Dahl's Law) as shown by the following examples.

ikiréemba 'impotent', ikimára 'useless individual', ikimúga 'a person with many health problems', ikiréma 'a crippled person', ikiragi 'a murte person', 'igipfáamatwí ' deaf person', igikuri 'dwarlf', igisaambo 'thief/crook', igicúucu 'stupid'.

Usually, the majority of words which refer to human beings take the prefix -mu- and -ba- for the singular and the the plural forms respectively, which are referred to in Bantu linguistics as class one 1 and class 2 (CL1&CL2).

This philosophy is very much similar and closer to existentialist philosophy because of its activism and humanism.

Conclusion

This article has shown that is it possible to know people's religious beliefs if one knows their language. The vocabulary already contains all the concepts that are in the collective knowledge and the unconscious mind of the society. The language use as shown by onomastics, proverbs, exclamations, etc. also adds further information.

References

Janz, Jahnhein. 1990. Muntu. An outline of a new African culture. New York : New York.
Grove Press.
Kagame, Alexis.1956. La Philosophie Bantu-Rwandaise de l'Etre.. Bruxelles, Belgique.
Académie Royale des Sciences Coloniales.
Kagame, Alexis. La Philosophie Bantu Comparée. Paris : Frnce. Présence Africaine.
Kimenyi, Alexandre. 1989 . Kinyarwanda and Kirundi Names : A Semiolinguistic Analysis of
Bantu Onomastics. Lewiston, NY : The Edwin Mellen Press.
Kimenyi, Alexandre. 2003. www.kimenyi.com/imana.php/
Mbiti, John. 1989. African Religions and Philisophy. 2nd Edition. Johannesburg : South
Africa. Heinamman.
Tempels, Placide.1969. Bantu Philosophy. Paris : France. Présence Africaine.

Index

animism
class system
ethnophilosophy
exitentialism
Dahl's Law
henotheist
monotheism
pantheism
paganism

Symbols

/…/ : underlying or phonemic representation
(…) : surface or phonetic representation
CL : class marker